Paragraph Structure

Paragraph length

• Between 7 and 14 lines

• Between 3 and 6/7 sentences

• Can be shorter/longer

• Too many short paragraphs – writing too bitty

• Too many long paragraphs – heavy and difficult to follow

Paragraph organisation

Paragraph = a number of sentences on a single topic

Paragraph goal = get a message across, make the story behind the message clear.

Topic Sentence

Topic of paragraph

• What the paragraph is about

• Use a key term

Message of the paragraph

• The point the paragraph is making

• Use a verb + subject (+ completer)

One topic & message only

Pulmonary nerve endings (Topic of the paragraph) were relatively insensitive to pheny diguanide (Message of the paragraph)

Supporting sentences

Include:

• definition

• evidence / reason

• explanation: cause

• explanation: effect

• classification

• specification

• composition

• description

• example

• comment / opinion

There are three different theories put forward for the slow relaxation of catch muscles of molluscs. One theory holds that … . In this theory … . The second theory holds that … . Since the … . A third theory, that fits with our findings, … .

Order of supporting sentences:

• Least to most important

• Most to least important

• Announced order

• Pro-Con, Pro, Con

• Funnel

• Chronological order

• Problem-Solution, Solution-Problem

The desalination plant will provide a relatively cost effective alternative source for Sydney’s water supply in periods of drought. (Definition) A drought is said to have begun when the rainfall over a period of 3 months lies below the 10 th percentile.

The desalination plant will provide a relatively cost effective alternative source for Sydney’s water supply in periods of drought. (Example) The Jebel Ali facility in the United Arab Emirates shows how the process can operate safely and economically.

The desalination plant will provide a relatively cost effective alternative source for Sydney’s water supply in periods of drought. (Classification) Droughts can be divided into two types: a serious drought, when rainfall lies below the 10th percentile for a given period, and a severe drought, when rainfall lies below the 5th percentile.

The desalination plant will provide a relatively cost effective alternative source for Sydney’s water supply in periods of drought. (Explanation: cause) While building costs may be high, the running costs, based on the use of renewable energy will be low.

The desalination plant will provide a relatively cost effective alternative source for Sydney’s water supply in periods of drought. (Explanation: effect) It is for this reason that the government is moving quickly to put out tenders for the project.

The desalination plant will provide a relatively cost effective alternative source for Sydney’s water supply in periods of drought. (Evidence) A recent engineer’s report indicated that up to 25% of Sydney’s drinking water could be provided by such a plant.

The desalination plant will provide a relatively cost effective alternative source for Sydney’s water supply in periods of drought. (Description) Drought is an increasingly common phenomenon in Australia and has caused great harm to Australia’s economy in the past.

How to choose the organisation pattern? How to choose the function of the sentence? It depends:

• What the text and paragraph are about (topic, focus, paragraph)

• What information is presented in the previous sentences

• Only one of the many possible ways of staging information in a sentence may make the meaning clear in the paragraph

All steps in the logic must be presented

Steps are often missed out accidental

• Writer is very familiar with the topic

How can we avoid missing out steps in our writing?

• Read your writing again after a few weeks

• Ask someone outside your field to read your writing

Paragraph Continuity

Methods:

• Repeating key terms

• Using transitions

• Keeping consistent order

• Keeping a consistent point of view

• Putting parallel ideas in parallel form

• Signalling the subtopics of a paragraph

• Logical staging /sequencing

Repeating key terms

Technical terms (G protein, mitogenesis …)

Non technical terms (increase, function …)

As expected, serum glucose decreased to about 800 mg/dl by the sixth hour of insulin infusion. To allow for osmotic equilibrium, we stabilized serum glucose at this level by adding to the fluid infusion an amount of glucose equivalent to the net loss of total body glucose. We estimated net loss of total body glucose as follows:…

Polyphagous tephritid fruit flies often have complex mating systems in which aggregated males, leks, occupy individual territories from which they emit chemical, acoustic and visual signals. Females arrive at these leks to choose mates, and the variance in male reproductive success is typically high.

For clarity, accuracy, and avoiding “noise”. Remember:

• You (author) will notice repetition of word. Most readers won’t

• Main goal: get your message across and make a clear story

• Makes the job of reading easier

Signalling

The elaboration of topic(s) in the body of a paragraphs can be:

• inferred

  The desalination plant will provide a relatively cost effective alternative source for Sydney’s water supply in periods of drought. Even severe droughts such as those experienced in 1991 and 2003 will no longer pose a threat to Sydney’s supply of drinking water.

• explicitly signalled

  The desalination plant will provide a relatively cost effective alternative source for Sydney’s water supply in periods of drought. In particular, even severe droughts such as those experienced in 1991 and 2003 will no longer pose a threat to Sydney’s supply of drinking water.

Signalling

• Strengthen written cohesion

• Use signposts to make it easier for readers to follow your ideas

• Carry over a thought between sentences / paragraphs

• Signposts = transition signals

• Several types of transition signals

• Act like bridges between parts of your writing

• No abrupt jumps or breaks between your ideas

Transition signals have different functions and have different grammatical use:

• different parts of speech (phrase, noun, adjective, verb)

• co-ordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)

  • Join parts of sentence: independent clauses / words

  • Independent clauses need “,” before the coordinating conjunction

    We all know smoking is bad for our health, but many people smoke anyway.

    The samples was contaminated, so the results were invalid.*

    He dropped the sample and contaminated it.*

• sentence connector (furthermore, in addition, moreover, however, nevertheless, as a result, consequently, hence, thus, in other words, that is, in contrast, conversely, for example, for instance, in fact)

  • Introduce a complete sentence or independent clause

  • Can appear at the beginning or in the middle

  • Need to use commas / semicolons

    For example, the Baltic Sea in Northern Europe is only one fourth as saline as the Rea Sea in the Middle East.

    In warm climate zones, water evaporates rapidly; therefore, its net profit declined.

• subordinator (even though, despite the fact, because, since, while, whereas)

  • Introduce a dependent clause (DC), which is joined to an independent clause (IC) to form a complete sentence

  • Use a comma if the DC comes before the IC; do not use a comma if the DC comes after the IC.

    Although smoking is linked with cancer, many people smoke.

    Many people smoke although it’s linked with cancer.

• transition phrases

  • No adequate transition word

  • Prepositional phrase

    • In this theory,
    • For this assessment,
    • As a result of this reaction,

  • Infinitive phrase

    • To obtain each pressure point,
    • To understand the source,

  • Transition clauses: uses a subject and verb to indicate the relationship

    One approach used to maintain “repeat key word” has been …

    Evidence for stimulation of “repeat key word” is that…

  • Transition signal: exemplifies

    The Jebel Ali facility in the United Arab Emirates exemplifies how this process can operate safely and economically.

  • Transition signal: an example

    The Jebel Ali facility in the United Arab Emirates is an example how this process can operate safely and economically.

  • Transition signal: for instance

    For instance, the Jebel Ali facility in the United Arab Emirates shows how this process can operate safely and economically.

Keeping consistent order

Items in topic sentence are A, B, C

Supporting sentences should explain first A, then B, and last C.

• should include all items

• should not add other items

Repeat key terms exactly

Keeping a consistent point of view

Topics of two or more sentences are the same –> The subjects of two or more sentences should be the same

• same term

• same category of term

Olsen et al. (22) concluded that series interaction was more important than direct interaction. We found that direct interaction was about one half as important as series interaction. 💩

Olsen et al. (22) concluded that direct interaction was less important than series interaction. Similarly, we found that direct interaction was about one half as important as series interaction. 👍

Mortality in this series of patients was 90%. Generally, survival in clinical series has been less than 20%. The only exception to this is the experience of Boley (2), who reported a mortality of 46%. 💩

Mortality in this series of patients was 90%. Generally, mortality in clinical series has been greater than 80%. The only exception is the mortality of 46% reported by Boley (2). 👍

Putting parallel ideas in parallel form

X increased but Y decreased

Grammatical form of each part of the sentence must be the same

• the subject, the verb, and the completer

• to present contrasting ideas

• to highlight similarities

• keep the words the same for the same ideas, so all the differences stand out

• Only the sentences that express parallel ideas are in parallel form

The log10 function eliminated some waves. The factor that determined whether a wave was eliminated or amplified was the divisor. When the divisor was greater than the absolute value of the peak of a wave, the wave was eliminated. When the divisor was less than the absolute value of the peak wave, the wave was amplified.

To determine whether cholinergic or adrenergic nerves mediate secretion of fluids from the glands, we did experiments on ferret glands. We induced secretion by stimulating the tissue both electrically and pharmacologically. We inhibited secretion by adding XXXX to the bathing solution.

Signalling the subtopics of a paragraph

Signalling a new topic

• new paragraph

• topic sentence

Signalling a new subtopic

• new paragraph

• Using a key term at the beginning of the sentence

The key term can be the subject of the sentence

Samples of inspired, end-tidal, and mixed-expired gases were taken during the 2 h wash in period. Inspired gas samples were collected proximal to the non-rebreathing valve. End-tidal gas samples…

The key term can be the object in a transition phrase

Propranolol had variable effects in regional blood flow. In the cerebellum, propranolol did not significantly alter the increase in blood flow. However, in other organs, such as the gut and kidneys, propranolol caused a severe decrease in blood flow.

Remember:

• Parallel ideas should be in parallel form

• Signals of subtopics should also be parallel

• Topic sentences don’t always name subtopics –> need to use signals

Logical staging /sequencing

Theme of a sentence

• known information

• information that has been previously mentioned

• links sentences together

• clearer writing

• more cohesive

Rheme of a sentence

• new information

To recognise the Theme & the Rheme

• Recognise the Finite Verb

  • A verb with tense and person

  • Can be a single words or a verb group

• Recognise the Subject of the finite verb

  • Typically a Noun Group

  • Can be a single word or a long complex groups of words

In English grammar, a finite verb is a form of a verb that

• shows agreement with a subject

• is marked for tense.

• if there is just one verb in a sentence, that verb is finite.

• a finite verb can stand by itself in a sentence

• sometimes called main verbs or tensed verbs

• a finite clause is a word group that contains a finite verb form as its central element.

The reason finite verbs are so important is their unique ability to act as the sentence-root. They can be used as the only verb in the sentence, whereas all the others have to depend on some other word, so finite verbs really stand out.

Non-finite verbs are not marked for tense and do not show agreement with a subject.

The main difference between finite verbs and non-finite verbs is that the former can act as the root of an independent clause, or a full sentence, while the latter cannot.

Recent publications contain many new ideas.

Many new ideas are in recent publications.

• You choose what should be the theme and what should be the rheme

• Depends on the purpose, topic and focus of the paragraph

• Depends on requirement of putting “given” information first

Measurement is complicated by the presence of particles.

The measurement of air temperature and humidity is complicated by the presence of particles.

The measurement of air temperature and humidity by means of a thermocouple placed directly in the drying chamber is complicated by the presence of particles.

All three Themes about ‘measurement’ are Subject of the finite verb, “is complicated”.

Quantitative research will always be the dominant paradigm in this department.

In all experiments, there is concern about leaving a margin of error.

Whatever the site of the data collection, researchers faced the same problem.

The three major factors considered by researchers on all projects were decided on by the main supervisor.

Initially, all the various shades of meaning possible in the respondents’ answers were taken into account.

Given information comes from the previous “New” and so the main point is built upon.

knitr::include_graphics("Old to New.png")

knitr::include_graphics("Example.png")

knitr::include_graphics("Example Structure.png")

Rheme –> Theme

Given information from previous rheme

Main point is built upon

knitr::include_graphics("Rheme to Theme.png")

Regular exercise helps prevent and treat numerous diseases. These diseases include diabetes, coronary heart disease and stroke.

The desalination plant will provide a relatively cost effect alternative source for Sydney’s water supply in periods of drought. Such droughts have occurred regularly throughout Australia’s history and appear to be becoming more severe. The severity will only increase as Australia’s rainfall becomes less reliable as a result of climate change. Finally, the erratic rainfall patterns render proposals for stormwater harvesting projects unfeasible. In the absence of any other realistic alternatives, the construction of a new desalination plant should commence without delay.

Rheme 1 –> Theme 2,3,4

Common in introductory paragraphs of a text

knitr::include_graphics("Rheme 1 to Theme 2 3 4.png")

Electric cars have three major advantages over traditional vehicles: cost, reliability and eco-friendliness. First, the low overall cost of owning an electric car is due to the extremely cheap running costs, with “fuel” being supplied at off peak rates. Second, breakdowns are rare as electric motors have fewer moving parts and, consequently, a longer lifespan. Finally, the low level of pollution involved in running electric cars reduces the environmental cost to society.

Theme –> Theme

Given information from previous theme

Topic focus is maintained

knitr::include_graphics("Theme to Theme.png")

Regular exercise helps prevent and treat numerous diseases. Exercise is also often inexpensive, accessible and largely acceptable to patients.

The desalination plant will provide a relatively cost effect alternative source for Sydney’s water supply in periods of drought. Its construction will overcome the crippling effects of severe droughts which have occurred regularly throughout Australia’s history. The plant will also help to compensate for the increasingly unreliable rainfall in Australia as a result of climate change. Finally, the plant is required to cater to the inevitable increase in demand for water as Sydney’s population grows. The construction of a new desalination plant should commence without delay.

Multiple Theme -> Themes

One idea in a Theme is developed or progressed across Themes

knitr::include_graphics("Multiple Theme to Themes.png")

In the earliest times, people carved or painted messages on rocks. Later on, people wrote on pieces of leather rolled into scrolls. During the Middle Ages, heavy paper called parchment was used for writing, and books were laboriously copied by hand. Then, in the middle of the 15th century, with the invention of the printing press, the birth of the modern printing industry was possible. Now, the advent of computers is rapidly revolutionising the process of communication.

Combination

Rheme –> Theme

Rheme 1 –> Themes 2, 3, 4

Theme –> Theme

Multiple Theme –> Theme

Various combinations of information structure patterns are possible, and the number of possible combinations is limitless.

knitr::include_graphics("logic sequence combination.png")

Clay particles have surface areas which are many orders of magnitude greater than silt or sand sized particles. The ability of soil to shrink when dried is controlled by the interactions of these clay surfaces with water and exchangeable cations. 💩

Clay particles have surface areas which are many orders of magnitude greater than silt or sand sized particles. The interaction of these clay surfaces with water and exchangeable cations control the ability of soils to shrink when dried. 👍

There are 188,000 lakes in Finland. Many people are now very concerned about them. Chemicals have polluted most of the larger lakes. A Finnish government report recently confirmed this. 💩

There are 188,000 lakes in Finland. They have caused a lot of concern for many people. Most of the larger lakes have been polluted by chemicals. This has been confirmed by a Finnish government report. 👍

Passive voice

• advice often given to avoid passive: be more direct & less wordy

• However, it can be used to improve cohesion and coherence: information flow (old information -> new information)

The biological clock is a master clock that dictates the day night cycle of activity known as circadian rhythm. The suprachiasmic nucleus (SCN) was identified as the location of the clock in the brains of humans and animals. Specialized clock genes are activated and deactivated mainly by a pair of proteins, one of which turns on a group of genes and the other of which turns off a key gene in a feedback loop that has a 24 hour rhythm (specifically a 24 hour and 18 minute rhythm). 💩

The biological clock is a master clock that dictates the day-night cycle of activity known as circadian rhythm. The clock was identified in a part of the brain called the suprachiasmic nucleus (SCN). Within individual SCN cells, specialised clock genes are activated and deactivated mainly by a pair of proteins, one of which turns on a group of genes and the other of which turns off a key gene in a feedback loop that has a 24-hour rhythm (specifically a 24-hour and 18 minute rhythm). 👍

Conclusion: Theme & Rheme

• Improves continuity

• Emphasise important information

  • Place this information in the “stress position”

  • “Stress position” is at the end of the sentence

  • The start of the sentence prepares the reader for the important information

  • Establishes links between sentences